12 minute read

next(coro) == coro.send(None)

Last post Python: Yes, coroutines are complicated, but they can be used as simply as generators raised me two interesting questions: why can next(coro) and coro.send(None) both serve as primers of coroutines? Is there any connection between them?

I checked the CPython code and found that, generators are special coroutines! Yes, they actually work the same way!

/* --------------------------------------------------------------------------
See https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Objects/genobject.c
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- */

PyDoc_STRVAR(send_doc,
"send(arg) -> send 'arg' into generator,\n\
return next yielded value or raise StopIteration.");

PyObject *
_PyGen_Send(PyGenObject *gen, PyObject *arg)
{
    return gen_send_ex(gen, arg, 0, 0);
}

static PyObject *
gen_iternext(PyGenObject *gen)
{
    return gen_send_ex(gen, NULL, 0, 0);
}

static PyObject *
gen_send_ex(PyGenObject *gen, PyObject *arg, int exc, int closing)
{
    PyThreadState *tstate = PyThreadState_GET();
    PyFrameObject *f = gen->gi_frame;
    PyObject *result;

    if (gen->gi_running) {
        char *msg = "generator already executing";
        if (PyCoro_CheckExact(gen)) {
            msg = "coroutine already executing";
        }
        else if (PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen)) {
            msg = "async generator already executing";
        }
        PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, msg);
        return NULL;
    }
    if (f == NULL || f->f_stacktop == NULL) {
        if (PyCoro_CheckExact(gen) && !closing) {
            /* `gen` is an exhausted coroutine: raise an error,
               except when called from gen_close(), which should
               always be a silent method. */
            PyErr_SetString(
                PyExc_RuntimeError,
                "cannot reuse already awaited coroutine");
        }
        else if (arg && !exc) {
            /* `gen` is an exhausted generator:
               only set exception if called from send(). */
            if (PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen)) {
                PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_StopAsyncIteration);
            }
            else {
                PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_StopIteration);
            }
        }
        return NULL;
    }

    if (f->f_lasti == -1) {  // ANCHOR-1
        if (arg && arg != Py_None) {
            char *msg = "can't send non-None value to a "
                        "just-started generator";
            if (PyCoro_CheckExact(gen)) {
                msg = NON_INIT_CORO_MSG;
            }
            else if (PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen)) {
                msg = "can't send non-None value to a "
                      "just-started async generator";
            }
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, msg);
            return NULL;
        }
    } else {
        /* Push arg onto the frame's value stack */
        result = arg ? arg : Py_None;
        Py_INCREF(result);
        *(f->f_stacktop++) = result;  // ANCHOR-2
    }

    /* Generators always return to their most recent caller, not
     * necessarily their creator. */
    Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
    assert(f->f_back == NULL);
    f->f_back = tstate->frame;

    gen->gi_running = 1;
    result = PyEval_EvalFrameEx(f, exc);  // ANCHOR-3
    gen->gi_running = 0;

    /* Don't keep the reference to f_back any longer than necessary.  It
     * may keep a chain of frames alive or it could create a reference
     * cycle. */
    assert(f->f_back == tstate->frame);
    Py_CLEAR(f->f_back);

    /* If the generator just returned (as opposed to yielding), signal
     * that the generator is exhausted. */
    if (result && f->f_stacktop == NULL) {
        if (result == Py_None) {
            /* Delay exception instantiation if we can */
            if (PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen)) {
                PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_StopAsyncIteration);
            }
            else {
                PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_StopIteration);
            }
        }
        else {
            /* Async generators cannot return anything but None */
            assert(!PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen));
            _PyGen_SetStopIterationValue(result);  // ANCHOR-4
        }
        Py_CLEAR(result);
    }
    else if (!result && PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_StopIteration)) {
        /* Check for __future__ generator_stop and conditionally turn
         * a leaking StopIteration into RuntimeError (with its cause
         * set appropriately). */

        const int check_stop_iter_error_flags = CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP |
                                                CO_COROUTINE |
                                                CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE |
                                                CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR;

        if (gen->gi_code != NULL &&
            ((PyCodeObject *)gen->gi_code)->co_flags &
                check_stop_iter_error_flags)
        {
            /* `gen` is either:
                  * a generator with CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP flag;
                  * a coroutine;
                  * a generator with CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE flag
                    (decorated with types.coroutine decorator);
                  * an async generator.
            */
            const char *msg = "generator raised StopIteration";
            if (PyCoro_CheckExact(gen)) {
                msg = "coroutine raised StopIteration";
            }
            else if PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen) {
                msg = "async generator raised StopIteration";
            }
            _PyErr_FormatFromCause(PyExc_RuntimeError, "%s", msg);
        }
        else {
            /* `gen` is an ordinary generator without
               CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP flag.
            */

            PyObject *exc, *val, *tb;

            /* Pop the exception before issuing a warning. */
            PyErr_Fetch(&exc, &val, &tb);

            if (PyErr_WarnFormat(PyExc_DeprecationWarning, 1,
                                 "generator '%.50S' raised StopIteration",
                                 gen->gi_qualname)) {
                /* Warning was converted to an error. */
                Py_XDECREF(exc);
                Py_XDECREF(val);
                Py_XDECREF(tb);
            }
            else {
                PyErr_Restore(exc, val, tb);
            }
        }
    }
    else if (PyAsyncGen_CheckExact(gen) && !result &&
             PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_StopAsyncIteration))
    {
        /* code in `gen` raised a StopAsyncIteration error:
           raise a RuntimeError.
        */
        const char *msg = "async generator raised StopAsyncIteration";
        _PyErr_FormatFromCause(PyExc_RuntimeError, "%s", msg);
    }

    if (!result || f->f_stacktop == NULL) {
        /* generator can't be rerun, so release the frame */
        /* first clean reference cycle through stored exception traceback */
        PyObject *t, *v, *tb;
        t = f->f_exc_type;
        v = f->f_exc_value;
        tb = f->f_exc_traceback;
        f->f_exc_type = NULL;
        f->f_exc_value = NULL;
        f->f_exc_traceback = NULL;
        Py_XDECREF(t);
        Py_XDECREF(v);
        Py_XDECREF(tb);
        gen->gi_frame->f_gen = NULL;
        gen->gi_frame = NULL;
        Py_DECREF(f);
    }

    return result;  // ANCHOR-5
}

So basically, next(gen_or_coro) is identical to gen_or_coro.send(None) except that you cannot send a non-None value to a just-started generator or coroutine (shown at // ANCHOR-1). That is to say,

  • You can use .send() on generators
  • You can use next() on coroutines, sending None values to them underneath.

Every generator or coroutine maintains a frame, something similar to a stack frame or activity record mentioned in Linking, Loading and Library.

Every time you call gen_or_coro.send(x), x is pushed the stack in the frame of gen_or_coro (shown at // ANCHOR-2). Then python would “evaluate this frame” (shown at // ANCHOR-3), i.e. continue running gen_or_coro over its next yield.

/* --------------------------------------------------------------------------
See https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Python/ceval.c
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- */

PyObject *
PyEval_EvalFrameEx(PyFrameObject *f, int throwflag)
{
    PyThreadState *tstate = PyThreadState_GET();
    return tstate->interp->eval_frame(f, throwflag);
}

PyObject* _Py_HOT_FUNCTION
_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault(PyFrameObject *f, int throwflag)
{
    // This is a function over 3000 lines...
}

/* --------------------------------------------------------------------------
See https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Python/pystate.c
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- */

PyInterpreterState *
PyInterpreterState_New(void)
{
    PyInterpreterState *interp = (PyInterpreterState *)
                                 PyMem_RawMalloc(sizeof(PyInterpreterState));

    if (interp != NULL) {
        HEAD_INIT();
#ifdef WITH_THREAD
        if (head_mutex == NULL)
            Py_FatalError("Can't initialize threads for interpreter");
#endif
        interp->modules = NULL;
        interp->modules_by_index = NULL;
        interp->sysdict = NULL;
        interp->builtins = NULL;
        interp->builtins_copy = NULL;
        interp->tstate_head = NULL;
        interp->codec_search_path = NULL;
        interp->codec_search_cache = NULL;
        interp->codec_error_registry = NULL;
        interp->codecs_initialized = 0;
        interp->fscodec_initialized = 0;
        interp->importlib = NULL;
        interp->import_func = NULL;
        interp->eval_frame = _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault;
        interp->co_extra_user_count = 0;
#ifdef HAVE_DLOPEN
#if HAVE_DECL_RTLD_NOW
        interp->dlopenflags = RTLD_NOW;
#else
        interp->dlopenflags = RTLD_LAZY;
#endif
#endif
#ifdef HAVE_FORK
        interp->before_forkers = NULL;
        interp->after_forkers_parent = NULL;
        interp->after_forkers_child = NULL;
#endif

        HEAD_LOCK();
        interp->next = interp_head;
        if (interp_main == NULL) {
            interp_main = interp;
        }
        interp_head = interp;
        if (_next_interp_id < 0) {
            /* overflow or Py_Initialize() not called! */
            PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                            "failed to get an interpreter ID");
            interp = NULL;
        } else {
            interp->id = _next_interp_id;
            _next_interp_id += 1;
        }
        HEAD_UNLOCK();
    }

    return interp;
}

I am not going to dive into _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault to see how it works but experiments told me that result = PyEval_EvalFrameEx(f, exc); (at // ANCHOR-3) is finally returned at // ANCHOR-5 to gen_or_coro.send(x), and this is the exactly the valued yielded by gen_or_coro.

From the second call of next() or send() on, the value stored in the top of the frame stack is assigned to some variable y if there is a statement y = yield [whatever] in gen_or_coro, or is discarded at statement yield [whatever] if gen_or_coro is a plain generator (because you are not going to assign this x to any variable).

  • I guess, for y = yield [whatever],
    • the first PyEval_EvalFrameEx call handles only the yield part;
    • the second PyEval_EvalFrameEx call handles the assignment y = ??? and then go to next yield
      • ??? comes from the stack top
      • Experiments told me that the assignment of y = x happens before send(x) returns.
  • The execution order inside send(x) is always
    1. Push x to stack top
    2. Evaluate to next yield (may or may not include an ??? = x assignment operation)
    3. Return the yielded value to the caller of send()
  • Recall that next(gen_or_coro) is identical to gen_or_coro.send(None), so every time you call next() on a plain generator, the None value you send underneath is discarded.

Therefore, you can see that yield [whatever] statement in plain generators and y = yield [whatever] statement in coroutines worked the same way.

def plain_generator():
    yield  # If there is no argument after `yield`, yield `None`
    yield
    yield

def simple_coroutine():
    x = yield  # If there is no argument after `yield`, yield `None`
    y = yield
    z = yield

    print("[simple_coroutine] after 3 yields, x = {}, y = {}, z = {}".format(x, y, z))

def client_1():
    my_gen = plain_generator()
    my_coro = simple_coroutine()

    # `list()` will call `next(gen_or_coro)` until StopIteration
    print(list(yield_from(my_gen)))
    print("------------------")
    print(list(yield_from(my_coro)))

def client_2():
    my_gen = plain_generator()
    my_coro = simple_coroutine()

    # Call `send` on a generator; call `next` on a coroutine.
    print(next(my_gen))
    print(my_gen.send('foo'))
    print("------------------")
    print(my_coro.send(None))
    print(next(my_coro))
    print(next(my_coro))

client_1()

# Output:
"""
[None, None, None]
------------------
[simple_coroutine] after 3 yields, x = None, y = None, z = None
[None, None, None]
"""

client_2()

# Output:
"""
None
None
------------------
None
None
None
[simple_coroutine] after 3 yields, x = None, y = None, z = 5
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
StopIteration                             Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-83-8abb26b63318> in <module>()
     34 
     35 client_1()
---> 36 client_2()

<ipython-input-83-8abb26b63318> in client_2()
     31     print(next(my_coro))
     32     print(next(my_coro))
---> 33     print(my_coro.send(5))
     34 
     35 client_1()

StopIteration: 
"""

In summary, in the following code,

foo, bar, baz, qux, alpha, beta = "foo", "bar", "baz", "qux", "alpha", "beta"

def plain_generator():
    yield foo
    yield bar

def simple_coroutine():
    y = yield baz
    print("y =", y)
    z = yield qux
    print("z =", z)

def client():
    my_gen = plain_generator()
    my_coro = simple_coroutine()

    ret_1 = next(my_gen)
    ret_2 = my_gen.send(alpha)

    ret_3 = next(my_coro)
    ret_4 = my_coro.send(beta)
    
    print(ret_1, ret_2, ret_3, ret_4)
    
client()

# Output:
"""
y = beta
foo bar baz qux
"""
  • next(my_gen):
    1. Push None to the stack top
    2. Make no assignment
    3. Evaluate yield foo; foo is returned to this next call.
      • Therefore ret_1 == foo
  • my_gen.send(alpha):
    1. Push alpha to the stack top
    2. Make no assignment
    3. Evaluate yield bar; bar is returned to this send call.
      • Therefore ret_2 == bar
  • next(my_coro):
    1. Push None to the stack top
    2. Make no assignment
    3. Evaluate yield baz; baz is returned to this send call.
      • Therefore ret_3 == baz
  • my_coro.send(beta)：
    1. Push beta to the stack top
    2. Make an assignment y = beta
    3. Evaluate yield qux; qux is returned to this send call.
      • Therefore ret_4 == qux
  • P.S. Assignment of z does not happen yet

yield from and return

The structure of a yield from application is a little bit complicated than a plain generator or coroutine. It usually consist of 3 parts:

def gen_or_coro(name):
    print("[{}] started".format(name))

    x = yield 1
    print("[{}] x = {}".format(name, x))

    # A function without a return-statement will default to return `None`
    # An explicit return-statement is not necessary in a generator or coroutine application.
    print("[{}] returned".format(name))
    return 2

def delegator():
    print("[delegator] started")

    delegatee = gen_or_coro('delegatee')
    
    y = yield from delegatee
    print("[delegator] y =", y)

    print("[delegator] returned")
    return 3

def client():
    my_dele = delegator()

    print("[client] calling next()...")
    ret_1 = next(my_dele)
    print("[client] ret_1 =", ret_1)
    
    print("-----------------------")
    
    print("[client] sending 100...")
    ret_2 = my_dele.send(100)
    print("[client] ret_2 =", ret_2)

client()

# Output
[client] calling next()...
[delegator] started
[delegatee] started
[client] ret_1 = 1
-----------------------
[client] sending 100...
[delegatee] x = 100
[delegatee] returned
[delegator] y = 2
[delegator] returned
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
StopIteration                             Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-138-66f27f9fd0d2> in <module>()
     34     print("[client] ret_2 =", ret_2)
     35 
---> 36 client()

<ipython-input-138-66f27f9fd0d2> in client()
     31 
     32     print("[client] sending 100...")
---> 33     ret_2 = my_dele.send(100)
     34     print("[client] ret_2 =", ret_2)
     35 

StopIteration: 3
  • delegator works as a bridge–calls to next(my_dele) or my_dele.send(100) are transfered to delegatee, i.e. equivalent to calling next(delegatee) or delegatee.send(100)
    • Everything works the same as a plain generator or coroutine. E.g. on next(my_dele), or equvalently on next(delegatee)
      • None is pushed to delegatee’s stack top
      • Assigment x = ??? is not done yet
      • yield 1 is evaluated and 1 is returned to this next(my_dele) call, thus ret_1 == 1
    • On my_dele.send(100), or equvalently on next(delegatee)
      • 100 is pushed to stack top
      • Assignment x = 100 gets executed
      • return 2 triggers a StopIteration and the return value 2 is wrapped into StopIteration.value (shown at // ANCHOR-4)
  • yield from in delegator can handle StopIteration raised by delegatee automatically
    • and y = yield from assignment is performed as y = StopIteration.value = ret_value_of_delegatee
    • The assignment is done immediately when StopIteration is raised. You don’t need another call to trigger it.
  • Then delegator runs to its end and return 3. This would also trigger a StopIteration and the return value 3 is wrapped into StopIteration.value
  • client cannot handle StopIteration automatically, nor is equipped with error handlers, so StopIteration is brought out to the runtime.

Note that you need $n$ calls to next() and send() in total to yield $n$ values while $n+1$ calls to make $n$ assignments. E.g.

def foo():
    x = yield 1
    y = yield 2
    z = yield 3
    return 4

f = foo()
next(f)      # yielding 1
f.send(100)  # yielding 2; assigning x
f.send(200)  # yielding 3; assigning y
f.send(300)  #             assigning z; return 4; StopIteration
statement push to stack top assign yield / return raise
next(f) None   yield 1  
f.send(100) 100 x = 100 yield 2  
f.send(200) 200 y = 200 yield 3  
f.send(300) 300 z = 300 return 4 StopIteration(value = 4)

If there are $n$ yield-statement in delegatee, you need $n+1$ calls to next() and send() in total to make $1$ y = yield from delegatee assignment in delegator.

What if there are $m$ yield from-statements in delegator? The truth is that you only need to prime delegator once, and not to prime $m$ delegatees. Therefore $mn + 1$ calls would suffice to bring all the mess to an end.

def gen_or_coro(name):
    print("[{}] started".format(name))
    x = yield 1
    print("[{}] x = {}".format(name, x))

    print("[{}] returned".format(name))
    return 2

def delegator():
    print("[delegator] started")
    
    delegatee_1 = gen_or_coro("delegatee_1")
    
    y = yield from delegatee_1
    print("[delegator] y =", y)
    
    delegatee_2 = gen_or_coro("delegatee_2")
    
    z = yield from delegatee_2
    print("[delegator] z =", z)

    print("[delegator] returned")
    return 3

def client():
    my_dele = delegator()

    print("[client] calling next()...")
    ret_1 = next(my_dele)
    print("[client] ret_1 =", ret_1)
    
    print("-----------------------")
    
    print("[client] sending 100...")
    ret_2 = my_dele.send(100)
    print("[client] ret_2 =", ret_2)
    
    print("-----------------------")
    
    print("[client] sending 200...")
    try:
        my_dele.send(200)
    except StopIteration as si:
        print("[client] interrupted by StopIteration, no value returned to `my_dele.send(200)`") 
        print("[client] delegator finally returned", si.value)

client()

# Output
"""
[client] calling next()...
[delegator] started
[delegatee_1] started
[client] ret_1 = 1
-----------------------
[client] sending 100...
[delegatee_1] x = 100
[delegatee_1] returned
[delegator] y = 2
[delegatee_2] started
[client] ret_2 = 1
-----------------------
[client] sending 200...
[delegatee_2] x = 200
[delegatee_2] returned
[delegator] z = 2
[delegator] returned
[client] interrupted by StopIteration, no value returned to `my_dele.send(200)`
[client] delegator finally returned 3
"""

You can see that on calling my_dele.send(100):

  1. 100 is pushed to stack top
  2. Assignment x = 100 is made
  3. delegatee_1 returned and raised an StopIteration(value=2)
  4. Assignment y = 2 is made
  5. Surprisingly! delegatee_2 started! And yield 1!
    • Therefore ret_2 = 1

Recall the logic of a call to next() or send() bridging two yield is:

  1. [Coroutine] Push ??? to stack top where ??? is the value sent by client
  2. [Coroutine] If the current statement is y = yield [already_yielded], make an assignment y = ???
  3. [Coroutine] Keep evaluating all the way to the next yield; stop execution after yielding; return the yielded value to next() or send()

Similarly, the logic of a call to next() or send() bridging two yield from is:

  1. [Delegatee] Push ??? to stack top where ??? is the value sent by client
  2. [Delegatee] If the current statment is y = yield [already_yielded], make an assignment y = ???
  3. [Delegatee] Returns z, then raisees an StopIteration(value=z)
  4. [Delegator] If the current statment is w = yield from delegatee, make an assignment w = StopIteration.value
  5. [Delegator] Keep evaluating all the way to the next yield, even if it’s in another delgatee; stop execution after yielding; return the yielded value to next() or send()

In short, it’s a cycle of

\[\begin{matrix} \text{push to stack top} & \Rightarrow & \text{assign sent value to variable if necessary} \\ \vdots & & \Downarrow \\ \text{return yielded value} & \Leftarrow & \text{evaluate till a new value yielded} \end{matrix}\]

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